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Biotech Accreditation Framework
THE GEOTECH UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHARMACY (Reviews)
INTRODUCTION
In the United States, Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) is a professional degree track that offers opportunities in research, teaching, clinical practice, industry, manufacturing, judicial, and a multitude of other areas.
The core requirements for professional pharmacists to acquire registration is often an undergraduate or postgraduate pharmacy degree from a recognized university. Predominantly, this requires completion of a four- or five-year course to attain a bachelor of pharmacy or master of pharmacy degree.
Students must complete a doctor of pharmacy degree to become a licensed pharmacist. The doctor of pharmacy degree usually requires completion of four years at an accredited college of pharmacy after an undergraduate degree or other approved courses.
A pharmacist, also known as a chemist in Commonwealth English (excluding Canada), is a healthcare professional who is knowledgeable about preparation, mechanism of action, clinical usage and legislation of medications in order to dispense them safely to the public and to provide consultancy services. A pharmacist also may serve as an Internet pharmacy, primary care provider in the community and offers services, such as health screenings and immunizations.
PHARMACY SCHOOL ACCREDITATION
The Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) is known as the accrediting body for schools of pharmacy in the United States. The mission of ACPE is “To assure excellence in education for the profession of pharmacy.” It is recognized for the accreditation of professional degree programs by the United States Department of Education (USDE) and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA). ACPE has also been the accrediting body for continuing pharmacy education. The ACPE board of directors are appointed by the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP), the American Pharmacists Association (APhA), the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP) (three appointments each), and the American Council on Education (one appointment). In order to obtain licensure in the United States, applicants for the NAPLEX must have graduated from an ACPE accredited school of pharmacy.
ACPE publishes standards that schools of pharmacy must comply with in order to gain accreditation. There are standards organized within six major categories of 1) mission, planning, and evaluation, 2) organization and administration, 3) curriculum, 4) students, 5) faculty and staff, 6) facilities and resources. Any pre-candidate status pharmacy school pursuing accreditation may be acquired upon submissions of a filed application. Respectively, no student enrollment is necessary prior to accreditation status met; an indication that the school of pharmacy has developed its program in accordance with the ACPE standards and guidelines.
Candidate status is assumed after a school has enrolled students that haven't had graduating class. These expectations set standard-based guidelines for candidate programs that abide by these academic plans and regulations in accordance with mandates. Fully accreditation is granted to a program once they have demonstrated compliance with the standards set forth by ACPE and may be subject to on-site evaluations and periodical reviews. Typically the requirements for licensure by reciprocity are less rigorous and may require as little as passing an additional law exam.
EDUCATION AND CREDENTIALING
Geotech University in the United States is equivalent to these List of pharmacy schools
offers pre-medical, Bachelor of Pharmacy and Doctor of Pharmacy of Pharmacist credential related programs. Upon completion of the program, a candidate to medical school completes about four years of study; and fulfills pharmacy residency in a specialty such as Doctor of Pharmacy degree. Becoming a pharmacist requires registration with the country, state, or province's regulatory agency. Prior to registration, the candidate pharmacists are required to register in addition to the graduation, completion of a number of hours of experience in a pharmacy under the supervision of a registered pharmacist. There may be a written and oral examination that a national examining board may administer.
In many contexts, students must first complete pre-professional (undergraduate) coursework, followed by about four years of professional academic studies to obtain a degree in pharmacy (such as Doctorate of Pharmacy). Pharmacists are educated in pharmacology, pharmacognosy, chemistry, organic chemistry, biochemistry, pharmaceutical chemistry, microbiology, pharmacy practice (including drug interactions, medicine monitoring, medication management), pharmaceutics, pharmacy law, pathophysiology, physiology, anatomy, drug delivery, pharmaceutical care, nephrology, hepatology, and compounding of medications. Additional curriculum may cover diagnosis with emphasis on laboratory tests, disease state management, therapeutics and prescribing (selecting the most appropriate medication for a given patient).
Upon graduation, pharmacists are licensed, either nationally or regionally, to dispense medication of various types in the areas they have trained for.
A Bachelor of Pharmacy (abbreviated BPharm or PharmB) or Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy (BS Pharm) is an academic degree in the field of pharmacy. The degree provides training to understand the properties and impacts of medicines and develop the skills required to counsel patients about their use. In most countries where it is offered, the course of study typically requires four years. Bachelor of Pharmacy degree holders can pursue various career paths, including working as a pharmacist, providing patient counseling, pursuing further studies such as a master's degree, teaching at a university as a lecturer, or working as a drug information specialist.
A Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD; Neo-Latin: Pharmaciae Doctor) is a professional doctorate in pharmacy. In some countries, it is a proficient graduate degree to practice the profession of pharmacy or to become a clinical pharmacist. In many countries, people with their Doctor of Pharmacy are allowed to practice independently and can prescribe drugs directly to patients. A PharmD program has significant experiential and/or clinical education components in introductory and advanced levels for the safe and effective use of drugs. Experiential education prepares graduates to be practice-ready, as they already have spent a significant amount of time training in areas of direct patient care and research.
LICENSING
A license is not required for every practitioner; yet, licensed by examination may require graduation from an AACP accredited school or college of pharmacy, satisfy requirements for internship, write and pass the North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination (NAPLEX). The variation of states written and passed the Multi-state Pharmacy Jurisprudence Exam (MPJE) is sometimes an additional state exam for credentials specific. Upon licensure, one may then be designated "Pharmacist" or "Registered Pharmacist" ("R.Ph."), as usage of these titles are generally regulated by state governments.
According to the ACPE, accreditation can be granted for the baccalaureate in pharmacy degree and the doctor of pharmacy degree. The doctor of pharmacy degree is designated to prepare graduates who are “educationally skilled for practice and should satisfy educational requirements for licensure.” Students who receive a baccalaureate degree in pharmacy or pharmaceutical sciences may pursue a doctorate to become eligible for licensure as a pharmacist. After obtaining a license, it must be periodically renewed by completing continuing education and other requirements as prescribed by the state of licensure.
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
In 2014, the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics revealed that there were 297,100 American pharmacist jobs. By 2024 that number was projected to grow by 3%. The majority (65%) of those pharmacists work in retail settings, mostly as salaried employees but some as self-employed owners. About 22% work in hospitals, and the rest mainly in mail-order or pharmaceutical wholesalers, practices of physicians, and the Federal Government.
All graduating pharmacists must now obtain the Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree before they are eligible to sit for the North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination (NAPLEX) to enter into pharmacy practice. In addition, pharmacists are subject to state-level jurisprudence exams in order to practice from state to state.
The American Pharmacy Journal of Education in 2014 reported the average salary around $112,160.
According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics' Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2016–17 Edition, Median annual wages of wage and salary pharmacists in May 2015 were $121,500.
In 2020 US News and World Report noted that the median pharmacist salary was $128,710. The top 25 percent of pharmacist earners made $147,690 that year, while the lowest 25 percent made $112,690.
The Gynecologists refer to the medical area for women's reproductive health and are regarded as practitioners of the female reproductive system; similarly to a midwife. Both professionalism and hospitality are the focus on pregnancy, childbirth, or a combination of obstetrics and gynecology (OB-GYN).
In the United States, obstetrics and gynecology requires residency training for four years. This encompasses comprehensive clinical and surgical education. OBGYN residents participate in a yearly in-training exam that is administered by the Council on Resident Education in Obstetrics and Gynecology (CREOG). Research suggests that combining curriculum and focused mentorship can improve residents' performance on the exam and overall educational outcomes.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Gynecologists' responsibilities focus on the overall female sexual reproduction health and wellness; not limited to preventative care, diagnosing and treating health issues, the female system, such as the uterus, vagina, cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and breasts. Other related care include family planning; surgical; pediatrics, gynecology; and the framework of the reproductive bones or the pelvis.
The specialists of fertility treatments, pregnancy, contraception are part of family planning. A diagnosis and treatment by a specialist may prepare the uterus for the duration of the pregnancy and details about concepts and techniques related to gynecological treatments for menstruation, fertility, and childbirth. This may be followed by assessment for prenatal care to include post meditations and nutritional information as part of recovery plans.
The anatomical and physiological study of female reproductive health in the 21st century may be supported in digital platforms. This is not a ‘reinvention of the wheel,’rather an adapter in modern days for referenced and accessible data for quick and better decision-making. It is the era that professionals incorporate adequate support for tools, training to problem-solving. A midwife or a specialist in female reproduction with experienced-based knowledge, traditional remedies, and herbal medicines may help in delivery of childbirth. Midwives are often regarded as naturalists rather than scientific; their practices are non-conventional for insurance claims or as classified unofficial to medical standards of practice.
FEMALE FERTILITY TREATMENTS
Generally, fertility treatments are surgical or non-surgical. Organizations such as the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) advocate such treatments before surgical intervention. The reproductive organs of a female may be restored by means of regenerated cells, improved biochemistry of the hormone and or removal of degenerate cells by means of surgery.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is an integral tool in modern medicine, clinical practice, specifically with diagnostics and predictive analytics. Algorithms data offers advanced imagery and infographics to support diagnosis of pathological processes in human health or biotech engineering. The data revealed in findings are part of the treatment plan and any retrieval augmenting data may be deemed as a reexamination of the medical interpretations.
Hormonal therapy can be used as a non-surgical treatment for the female reproductive system for systemic recovery or rehabilitation. Whether by social-emotional support through counseling or psychologist intervention; which may extend to other practical reinforcement of sustainable lifestyle for family planning. Thus, the releases and hormonal balance may support healthy organs for reproduction health.
Biochemistry in acid based has been found to be an effective drug to reduce the amount of bleeding during menstruation and medical procedures, or hormone based to help reduce heavy periods and can be used to treat menorrhagia.
In terms of surgery, research has led to minimally invasive approaches, such as vaginal natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery. This technique allows surgeons to access the pelvic cavity through the vaginal canal, reducing recovery times, postoperative pain, and complication rates in comparison to traditional methods.
Gynecologists perform professional assessment, treatments and referral services for specialists to support female reproductive health and well-being. The medical report enables the treatment plan for implementation and follow up. The treatment plan is a collective effort from the patient to the medical team for consideration of efficiency and credibility.
The Geotech University School of Dentistry prepares professionals for both methodological and competence-based to effectively demonstrate clinical skills using Dental instruments with supervision of specialized training laboratory Dentistry in the United States.There are pre-medical requirements of necessary scientific and professional basis of care with a foundation of extensive research-based education to fulfill prior to residency. While accreditation of dental schools varies Sustainable dentistry are ranked and infrastructure, a reputable university specializing including Pediatric dentistry, and Geriatric dentistry professionalism of Eco-friendly dentistry education is honorable in private practices and Dental public health within these highlighted :
A Dental Chair Illustrated as SA at the Geotech University School of Dentistry
Research-based Dentistry
The term dentistry is believed to be French influenced from romance languages, within the French context dentiste, and Latin words for tooth.The term implies scientific study of teeth or odontology as the study of the structure, development, and abnormalities of the teeth. The French surgeon Pierre Fauchard became known as the "father of modern dentistry". Dentistry, also referred to as dental medicine and oral medicine, is the branch of medicine focused on the mastication as part of the digestive system such as teeth, gums, and mouth by the practitioner or dentist.
Candidates in dentistry profession development focus on diagnosis, prevention, management, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and anatomical structure of the mouth, most commonly focused on dentition (the development and arrangement of teeth) as well as the oral mucosa. Dentistry may also be considered as cosmetic not limited to other aspects of the craniofacial complex including the temporomandibular joint. In most cases, the oral surgeon and dental assistant team may deliver services such as removing a wisdom tooth. Dental treatments are carried out by a dental team, which often consists of a dentist and dental auxiliaries (such as dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, and dental therapists). Most dentists either work in private practices (primary care), dental hospitals, or (secondary care) public institutions. The history of dentistry is almost as ancient as the history of humanity and civilization, with the earliest evidence dating from 7000.
Researchers are compelled to Evidence-based dentistry by emphasizing on high-quality scientific evidence in decision-making and performance-driven approaches. The focus is on oral health that requires procedures to relevant scientific data related to the patient's oral and medical health. Professionals in dentistry's skill and expertise, evidence-based dentistry facilitates dentists to stay abreast with procedures for patients to receive improved treatment. A new paradigm for medical education designed to incorporate current research into education and practice was developed to help practitioners provide the best care for their patients. Perhaps it is said that Gordon Guyatt first introduced the Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group at McMaster University in Ontario, Canada in the 1990s. It is part of the larger movement toward evidence-based medicine and other evidence-based practices, especially since a major part of dentistry involves dealing with oral and systemic diseases.
Health and Safety currently is known as Occupational Safety and Health (OSHA). The sanitary and measure of precautions required for setting up equipment and tools for use of clinical services compel for microbes proof or germs or viruses sharing. As such, adequate solutions must be available for eradication of microbes without exceptions to antiseptic techniques of elimination to meet sanitary guidelines set by the Department of Health and condition to reach medical standards of practices. The types of unwanted that can surface to be harmful or hazardous care unlimited. Scientific research shows that all living things carry germs, viruses and microbes. There're good and bad; it's the reason to circumvent toxins in service to human standards of living. Acute allergic reactions are the most common response in individuals who are either allergic or hypersensitive to nickel, and this leads to an immediate immune response. The immune responses correlated to nickel exposure are not toxic poisoning and do not occur in the general population, but they consist of contact dermatitis, hypersensitivity reactions such as inflammation of the oral mucosa, lip or cheek dermatitis, itching, oral burning, and erythema. These practices are important to understand the human lymphatic system and how the body maintains homeostasis against pathological conditions. Chemical disinfectants are necessary in a dental practice to prevent infection and contamination between patients. As a consequence, it introduces many chemical and occupational hazards. The most commonly used active ingredients in disinfection include alcohol, ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA) solution, hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, and glutaraldehyde. In terms of surface-disinfection, workers are especially exposed to agents like aldehydes and quaternary-ammonium compounds via inhalation or physical contact. This may result in allergies, due to lack of adequate ventilation and prolonged exposure. Research shows that around 10.9% of dental professionals may test positive for an allergic reaction to glutaraldehyde, compared to 2% in non-dental control subjects Additionally, frequent use of disinfectants may result in more respiratory symptoms in dental workers as well as worsened asthma control.
Certain compounds may be deemed to be allergic reactions. Nickel sensitivity is highly common in childhood through adolescence due to constant exposure from jewelry, belts, toys, coins, and dental appliances. However, according to recent studies, in people who are not sensitive to nickel, dental alloys release levels that are typically less harmful and regarded as biologically safe. Nickel exposure in dentistry can primarily occur through the use of nickel-containing alloys like crowns, bridges, brackets, surgical implants, and orthodontic appliances.
The digital transformation of healthcare in dentistry has influenced methods and emerged practical fundamentals of patient treatment. Cutting-edge technologies are being used in dentistry, to provide quality health care services. First, for pre-assessment in diagnosis of patient care, computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) systems in combination with 3D printing, artificial intelligence (AI), and electronic health records. The approach is diverse to the applicable needs in the settings of technologies across dental practices.
Irrespective of the settings, accommodations for research reveal a framework aimed at organizational settings accordingly to meet the needs. Traditional methods have set the foundation over the years with alignment of current practitioners. The digitalization era of partnerships and Artificial Intelligence has shifted into open-source and facilitate and leverage for capacity building and inclusiveness of management.
The modern movement of evidence-based dentistry demands for implementation of high-standards of scientific research and evidence to guide decision-making such as in manual tooth conservation, use of fluoride water treatment and fluoride toothpaste, dealing with oral diseases such as tooth decay and periodontitis, as well as systematic diseases such as osteoporosis, diabetes, and other systemic conditions. Relevant data collection of evidence-based dentistry include radiology of the mouth to inspect teeth alignment, hematology (study of blood) to avoid bleeding complications during dental surgery, cardiology (due to various severe complications arising from dental surgery with patients with heart disease), as pre-medical assessments.
Dental degrees awarded around the world include the Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) and Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD) in North America (US and Canada), and the Bachelor of Dental Surgery/Baccalaureus Dentalis Chirurgiae (BDS, BDent, BChD, BDSc) in the UK and current and former British Commonwealth countries.
Dentists in the United States complete at least three years of undergraduate studies, but nearly all complete a bachelor's degree. This academic experience is followed by four years of dental school to qualify as a "Doctor of Dental Surgery" (DDS) or "Doctor of Dental Medicine" (DMD). Specialization in dentistry prepares candidates for the fields of Anesthesiology, Dental Public Health, Endodontics, Oral Radiology, Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Oral Medicine, Orofacial Pain, Pathology, Orthodontics, Pediatric Dentistry (Pedodontics), Periodontics, and Prosthodontics.
A number of dentists advanced in their respective medical specialty after their initial degree. The specialties may not be limited to the recognized dental registration, and:
Anesthesiology– the specialty of dentistry that deals with the advanced use of general anesthesia, sedation and pain management to facilitate dental procedures.
Cosmetic dentistry – focuses on improving the appearance of the mouth, teeth and smile.
Dental public health – the study of epidemiology and social health policies relevant to oral health.
Endodontics (also called endodontology) – root canal therapy and study of diseases of the dental pulp and periapical tissues.
Forensic odontology – the gathering and use of dental evidence in law. This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field. The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity.
Geriatric dentistry or geriodontics – the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal aging and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals.
Oral and maxillofacial pathology – the study, diagnosis, and sometimes the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases.
Oral and maxillofacial radiology – the study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases.
Oral and maxillofacial surgery (also called oral surgery) – extractions, implants, and surgery of the jaws, mouth and face.
Oral biology – research in dental and craniofacial biology
Oral implantology – the replacement of extracted teeth with dental implants.
Oral medicine – the clinical evaluation and diagnosis of oral mucosal diseases
Orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics – the straightening of teeth and modification of midface and mandibular growth.
Pediatric dentistry (also called pedodontics) – dentistry for children
Periodontology (also called periodontics) – the study and treatment of diseases of the periodontium (non-surgical and surgical) as well as placement and maintenance of dental implants
Prosthodontics (also called prosthetic dentistry) – dentures, bridges and the restoration of implants.
Some prosthodontists super-specialize in maxillofacial prosthetics, which is the discipline originally concerned with the rehabilitation of patients with congenital facial and oral defects such as cleft lip and palate or patients born with an underdeveloped ear (microtia). Today, most maxillofacial prosthodontists return function and esthetics to patients with acquired defects secondary to surgical removal of head and neck tumors, or secondary to trauma from war or motor vehicle accidents.
Special needs dentistry (also called special care dentistry) – dentistry for those with developmental and acquired disabilities.
Sports dentistry – the branch of sports medicine dealing with prevention and treatment of dental injuries and oral diseases associated with sports and exercise. The sports dentist works as an individual consultant or as a member of a sports medicine team.
Veterinary dentistry – the field of dentistry applied to the care of animals. It is a specialty of veterinary medicine.
In addition to the required dentistry license, continuing education or continuing professional development (CE/CPD) after graduation may also be required. These structured activities help maintain clinical competence, support patient safety, and keep practitioners up to date with current standards of care, with government regulators typically specifying minimum hours or points per cycle and mandating core topics such as infection control, radiography, and medical emergencies.
A sagittal cross-section of a molar tooth; 1: crown, 2: root, 3: enamel, 4: dentin and dentin tubules, 5: pulp chamber, 6: blood vessels and nerve, 7: periodontal ligament, 8: apex and periapical region, 9: alveolar bone
A Dental Chair Illustrated as SA at the Geotech University School of Dentistry
Dentistry usually encompasses practices related to the oral cavity. According to the World Health Organization, oral health is considered as part of primary care in developed countries in part of making public health care provision without prejudice or social justice for the special needs who would not have normally afford out of pocket expenses for healthcare insurance. Dentists also encourage the prevention of oral diseases through proper hygiene and regular, twice or more yearly, checkups for professional cleaning and evaluation. Oral infections and inflammations may affect overall health, and conditions in the oral cavity may be indicative of systemic diseases, such as osteoporosis. Defective tooth condition must be followed by a professional medical exam to prevent infection and health complications that may be detrimental to other parts of the body. For example, enamel defects have been associated with untreated celiac disease.
The majority of dental treatments are carried out to prevent or treat the two most common oral diseases, which are dental caries (tooth decay) and periodontal disease (gingivitis or periodontitis). The concept that oral health can affect systemic health and disease is referred to as "oral-systemic health". Common treatments involve the restoration of teeth, extraction or surgical removal of teeth, scaling and root planing, endodontic root canal treatment, and cosmetic dentistry. In practice, specialization, may be prevalent of dental treatments such as restorative (fillings, crowns, bridges), prosthetic (dentures), endodontic (root canal) therapy, periodontal (gum) therapy, and extraction of teeth, as well as performing examinations, radiographs (x-rays), and diagnosis. Dentists can also prescribe medications used in the field such as antibiotics, sedatives, and any other drugs used in patient care management. Depending on their licensing boards, general dentists may be required to complete additional training to perform sedation, or dental implants.
This publication offered a comprehensive outlook on the dentistry process, methods and practices. It's intended for further research and practical fundamentals of training and clinical expertise depending on the use of content. Other related data may be optimized with enhanced scientific study and evidence-based practices. Thus enrollment in the degree program may be part of fulfillment and awarded credentials for professional establishments.
The GEOTECH UNIVERSITY - MEDICAL SCHOOLS JOURNAL ON GYNECOLOGISTS | Geotech Publishing House
Candidates of Doctoral Degrees are granted degrees in medicine.
The Geotech University School of Medicine is unlisted as a tertiary educational institution, rather it is a professional school of affiliated institutions and qualified professors that award a professional degree for medical doctors. The pre-medicine are Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery; Master of Medicine (MM) and the following subjects are often the prerequisites for a medical school students:
In modern days of access to AI tools, many medical practitioners are compelled to become knowledgeable and efficient at responding to medical emergencies. Professionalism and ethical standards that drive the practice often require immediate response in problem-solving to meet the challenges. Capacity building to respond to real-time and real-life emergencies required a series of specific protocols to follow across these responses to medical needs and responsible use of AI tools not limited to pediatric, obstetric or trauma. Some basic applicable AI in clinical areas that are important to learn and for decision-making can be planned strategically, efficiently, and promptly. All medical degree candidates require foundational knowledge and skills to:
✓ Integration use of Al in clinical medicine
✓ AI-Powered tools to accurately run diagnostic
✓ Al solutions in medical workflow effortlessly
✓ Meeting standards based to ethical and legal frameworks
✓ Familiarity with Al tools for administrative efficiency
✓ Access to medical research to meet criteria based in these subjects:
Doctor of Medicine (MD), or Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). Specialties may include pediatrics, general surgery, anaesthesiology, orthopaedics, gynaecology and obstetrics, emergency medicine, neurology, psychiatry, urology, physical medicine and rehabilitation, ophthalmology.
Students at Geotech University Medical school offer various programs considerably and independent researchers may carry out medical research criteria, structure, teaching methodology, and nature of medical Medical schools and operate teaching hospitals. An academic advisor may waive the required standardized entrance examinations, as well as grade point averages. The first year of residency training is a general practice year and is referred to as post-graduate year one or "PGY-1." The second year of residency training, which is referred to as post-graduate year two or "PGY-2," is typically geared toward specialization in a specific therapeutic area, such as cardiology, pediatrics, infectious disease, etc. Residency programs may be accredited by the American Society of Health-system Pharmacists (ASHP). A list of accredited programs can be accessed via ASHP's website as well as ACCP's website. Skills for the professional in medicine include leadership roles. The credentials of the United States, Canada and allied nations are commensurated to almost all medical degrees are second-entry degrees. Upon graduation, recipients of Medical degrees are awarded to medical students after the completion of their degree program, typically lasting five or more years for the undergraduate model and four years for the graduate model.
Traditional curricula are usually divided into preclinical and clinical. In preclinical sciences, students study subjects such as biochemistry, genetics, pharmacology, pathology, anatomy, physiology and medical microbiology, among others. Subsequently, clinical include internal medicine, general surgery, pediatrics, psychiatry, and obstetrics and gynecology, among others.
Medical schools are regulated by the World Directory of Medical Schools; Geotech University Schools of Medicine may confer upon graduates a medical degree, a physician typically may not legally practice medicine until licensed by the local government authority. Licensing may also require passing a test, undergoing a criminal background check, references check, paying a fee, and completion of postgraduate training. Other agencies may be involved in the merger of the AVICENNA Directory for Medicine and the FAIMER International Medical Education Directory.
Introduction
REFERENCE LEGAL CODES
Intellectual Property Codes
Types of IP Codes
1. Patent Law
- Governs inventions and utility patents
- Examples: 35 U.S.C. §§ 1-376 (Patent Act)
2. Trademark Law
- Protects brand names, logos, and marks
- Examples: 15 U.S.C. §§ 1051-1127 (Lanham Act)
3. Copyright Law
- Covers original works of authorship (literary, artistic, musical)
- Examples: 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-1332 (Copyright Act)
4. Trade Secret Law
- Protects confidential business information
- Examples: Uniform Trade Secrets Act (UTSA)
Key IP Codes and Statutes
1. Patent Act (35 U.S.C.)
- Governs patentability, procedure, and infringement
2. Lanham Act (15 U.S.C. §§ 1051-1127)
- Trademark registration and protection
3. Copyright Act (17 U.S.C.)
- Covers copyright protection and enforcement
4. Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)
- Regulates digital copyright issues
International IP Agreements
1. Paris Convention
- International treaty on patents, trademarks, and industrial designs
2. Berne Convention
- International copyright protection
3. TRIPS Agreement (WTO)
- Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
Enforcement and Remedies
1. Infringement and Litigation
- Civil and criminal enforcement of IP rights
2. Damages and Remedies
- Monetary damages, injunctions, and attorney's fees
3. IP Offices and Procedures
- USPTO, Copyright Office, and international IP offices
Patent and Trademark Codes
Patent Codes
1. 35 U.S.C. §§ 1-376 (Patent Act)
- Governs patentability, procedure, and infringement
- Key sections:
- § 101: Patentable subject matter
- § 102: Novelty and non-obviousness
- § 103: Non-obviousness requirement
- § 271: Infringement
2. Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT)
- International patent application system
- Streamlines filing and prosecution
Trademark Codes
1. 15 U.S.C. §§ 1051-1127 (Lanham Act)
- Governs trademark registration and protection
- Key sections:
- § 1051: Trademark registration
- § 1114: Infringement
- § 1125: False designation of origin
2. Trademark Law Revision Act of 1988
- Amended Lanham Act to include intent-to-use applications
Key Concepts
1. Patentability
- Novelty, non-obviousness, utility, and subject matter
2. Trademark Distinctiveness
- Inherent or acquired distinctiveness
- Spectrum: generic, descriptive, suggestive, arbitrary, fanciful
3. Infringement
- Patent: making, using, selling, or importing
- Trademark: likelihood of confusion
Procedures
1. USPTO Filing
- Patent and trademark applications
- Examination and prosecution
2. Opposition and Cancellation
- Trademark opposition and cancellation proceedings
3. Litigation
- Patent and trademark infringement suits